Compartive Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Compartive - Essay Example But they needed the state to maintain peace and order, provide them with essential services, and settle their quarrels and conflicts. Thus, in a social contract to which they voluntarily consented, they created the state for the purpose of promoting and preserving their natural rights to life, liberty and property. Hobbes’ social contract was not really a special contract, since there was no contract or covenant between the ruler and the subjects. The sovereign had no obligations to his subjects nor could they limit his exercise of absolute power. It was John Locke who painted a picture of liberty of citizens and authority of government in tones which were far moderate than that of Thomas Hobbes. Men in a state of nature could make use of their perfect freedom for their own good, since they were reasonable men. To John Locke, men did not abuse their Liberty. They did not threaten the lives of their neighbors. He wrote: Though this is a state of liberty, yet it is not a state of license†¦. The state of nature of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges everyone; and reason, which is that law that teaches all mankind who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent; no one has a right to harm another in his life, health, liberty of possessions. 1 Locke’s social contract favored men quitting the state of nature to form themselves into a civil society. In this society men instituted the state where a social contract or covenant was formulated between citizens and government, a trustee which they could dismiss if it did not maintain the freedom and equality that men originally knew and enjoyed. In other words, when government no longer served the citizens’ interests and welfare, it might be resisted or overthrown. Why, because government had violated its obligations under the social contract to the extent that it had broken it. What were these obligations? The government as trustee had to protect and

Personality disorder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Personality disorder - Essay Example The people share and contrast their personality traits with the fellow humans, and are indentified with the group or community the patterns of which they follow in their everyday life in behavior. For instance, people categorize the individuals into benevolent and rude, and generous and selfish etc. The authors view high self-esteem as an important personality trait, which not only reflects high confident level and superior self-assessment, but also is extremely essential for obtaining successes in life (406). However, boosting over one’s abilities or having exaggerated confidence level also demonstrates low self-esteem, where one looks to be concealing his weaknesses with the help of snobbish behavior and embellishment. Similarly, admiration and acknowledgement are the factors to accelerate self-esteem to a great extent (407). Craig & Baucum are of the view that self-conception and estimation appear in children after their first birthday, and the affects of the first images o f self-discovery are long-lasting ones, which seldom perish throughout one’s lifespan (2002:228). ... (1936) submits to state that personality is assumed and estimated in the light of few prominent and unique traits and features possessed by the individuals. Personality characteristics are the entities, which produce prejudice among the individuals towards certain mental states; they also cause mental states like beliefs and desires, which in turn cause behaviors (Rosati et al., 2001:4). It is therefore some individuals appear to be introvert in nature (Coon & Mitterer, 408), and keep their views and thinking to themselves, while many people are extrovert, and frequently give vent to their ideas and opinions in the presence of others. In addition, some of the theorists are of the opinion that the individuals are motivated by observing the performance of others, which not only urge them to demonstrate the same or superior performance, but also help out in boosting up of their morale and self-esteem subsequently (Schmitt et al. 2000:1599); consequently, here appears social learning the ory that argues that all human acts are the outcome of the individuals’ observation of social establishment in which they have been brought up and have obtained socialization process. Consequently, supporters of social learning theory refute the possibility of nature theories that man enters the world carrying some specific personality features and characteristics (Coon & Mitterer, 421-22). It was Bandura to postulate that human behavior could be learned at the cognitive level through observing other people’s actions (Rogers, 2001:4); hence, people enter this world with the mind like clean slate, and learns every act by observing and imitating the others. Crime is aptly stated as learned behavior, which reflects the techniques and methodology the criminals get acquainted with by

Case Study on Cultural Differences Essay Example for Free

Case Study on Cultural Differences Essay Cultural differences can pose problems for health care workers. In the case of Linda Gorman, she is faced with the decision to report a woman for child abuse, or chalk it up to cultural differences. The question shouldn’t be whether or not she should report Mrs. Saeto, but rather, are Mrs. Saeto’s actions really considered child abuse? The answer to this can get muddled in cultural beliefs. For Americans, her actions qualify as abusive because Mrs. Saeto is unnecessarily causing harm to baby Marie by burning her. To the Mien culture, this is merely an act of protecting the child and curing her from an ailment. It really depends on what viewpoint one looks at it from. In the Mien culture, practices like this burning ritual are commonplace. The Mien culture believes in spirits and rituals that can cure ailments. To some outside of the culture, these practices may seem barbaric, but to them, some of American practices may seem barbaric as well. For example, Linda mentions the differences between burning a child and causing a child pain by giving them a shot. Both cause the baby to cry, and to both cultures, both are considered to be helping the baby stay healthy. To anyone outside of the American culture, American medical practices can potentially seem just as barbaric as burning a baby. This is directly related to cultural relativity, or â€Å"the view that practices and behaviors can be judged only by the cultural standards of the culture in which those practices occur,† (Hachen, n. d. ). According to David Hachen, â€Å"rejecting cultural relativity implies that there are universal standards by which the practices in all cultures can be evaluated,† (Hachen, n. . ). If Linda assumes that Mrs. Saeto’s beliefs are barbaric and should be reported, she is practicing ethnocentrism, or â€Å"the view that one’s own culture is the superior culture and therefore its standards are the ‘universal’ ones that should be used to judge behaviors in all cultures,† (Hachen, n. d. ). Linda needs to decide whether her practices and beliefs are superior to Mrs. Saeto’s, and therefore the standard by which to compare Mrs. Saeto’s actions. Should Linda find Mrs. Saeto’s actions unacceptable in the American culture, how should she proceed? Should she report Mrs. Saeto for child abuse, or should she confront her in the hopes to change Mrs. Saeto’s opinions concerning Mien cultural cures and medical practices? If Linda decides to confront Mrs. Saeto, she should probably explain to her that in America, most people would consider her actions abusive to baby Marie and that she should probably not continue to â€Å"cure† her in this manner. This poses another ethical dilemma. By imparting this knowledge to Mrs. Saeto, Linda is, in a sense, assimilating Mrs.  Saeto to American culture. How far is too far? If Mrs. Saeto gives up this practice, and similar ones, in order to not seem abusive to her American peers, what else will she have to give up from her culture? Linda’s best options for handling the situation are to talk to Mrs. Saeto and try to explain the dilemma to her. She should convey that she understands the cultural differences, but that if another doctor who does not understand sees the burns, it may be misconstrued as child abuse. She shouldn’t threaten Mrs.  Saeto with reporting her, but should rather allow Mrs. Saeto to see both sides of the story, as Linda is seeing them. Hopefully, this will allow Mrs. Saeto to make an educated decision in her own time, regarding the practices. Neither side is right, nor wrong, in this case, however, Mrs. Saeto must be made aware of the potential danger she could face by continuing her Mien practices in America, where the wrong person may see and not understand and make a rash decision that could harm Mrs. Saeto’s family in the long run.

Theories for the Development of Expertise

Theories for the Development of Expertise The Nature or Nurture of Expertise Historically, expertise has been strongly correlated with inherent ability. Experts were thought to be â€Å"born† and required training only to reach their highest level of performance. This was based on ideas by Galton (1869 as cited by Macnamara et al (2014)), a geneticist, who noted that excellence in the arts and sciences tended to run within families. However, this theory alone is in contrary to what is observed in surgical training, where despite initially showing poor aptitude for practical skill, most novices will progress and become expert surgeons. Therefore, whilst innate ability is undoubtedly an important factor when carrying out a task, is it really necessary for the development of expertise? The current view, first suggested by behavioural psychologist Watson (1930), completely moves away from the need for innate ability, and suggests that experts are â€Å"made† through practice, determination and hard-work (as cited by Macnamara et al (2014)). This theory is supplemented by Ericsson et al (1993), who state that while amount of practice and experience play an important role in the development of expertise, quantity alone is insufficient, but rather quality in the form of sustained deliberate practice is more important in the development of expertise. Ericsson et al (1993) defined this as practising individual skills with the specific aim of improvement, and famously quoted that 10000 hours of deliberate practice (DP) was required to attain expertise, which they based on the estimated cumulative quantity that the best musicians engaged in over their careers. DP hence involves practising the skill at progressively more challenging levels, with feedback and reflection, in an attempt to master it. I am able to relate to this as a musician myself; I was taught never to practise by playing the same piece of music over and over again. Rather I practise my fingering with the specific intention of becoming a better pianist by challenging myself with progressively faster and more technically challenging pieces of music. Thus, whilst frequent repetition may maintain my skill level, DP is crucial for advancement. Similarly, Rees-Lee and Kneebone (2015) describe the process of DP in tailors whereby the initially learn to practice on cloth and then progress to trousers and jackets. While this sequential training is similar to surgery in that the trainee starts with suturing and then progress to operations, the benefit of a graded training program in surgery over the apprenticeship in tailoring is that of a curricula whereby increasing levels of diffi culty are specifically introduced at regular intervals over the course of the training program, thus facilitating DP and development of expertise. On the contrary, Ericsson et al and the theory of DP has been criticised for placing no weight on innate talent. DP alone does not explain why only certain people are able to successfully take up playing a musical instrument. Macnamara et al (2014) argue that the majority of people will stop doing what they are not good at, and thus talent must precede DP. Grantcharov and Reznick (2009) were critical of the 10000 hours within the surgical domain, as it is based on the assumption that surgical trainees learn at the same rate, which is not the case. Recently, Hambrick et al (2014) and a subsequent meta-analysis by Macnamara et al (2014) have shown that within the domains of music, chess, education, sport and professions there is a large variance that cannot be explained by DP. Whilst the effect of DP was strong on music, chess and sport, it was extremely weak on education and professions. This may be because DP isn’t as defined in the latter activities, or alternatively performa nce in these activities is much less predictable (for example handling emergencies in surgery, or teaching students of varying knowledge levels). Subsequently, they concluded that while DP is a very important predictor of individual differences in performance, it isn’t as significant as Ericsson et al have stated. Overall, it seems evident that in both surgical and non-medical professions, the purpose of the selection process is to pick those candidates that demonstrate the innate abilities required to be a member of their community of practice. It is however sustained DP that will allow the individual to become an expert. Sadideen et al (2013) further suggests that innate ability will both speed up the rate at which this expertise is achieved, but will also be the limiting factor to how far one can progress. Efficiency versus Innovation As discussed in the previous section, sustained deliberate practice (DP) plays a critical role in the development of expertise. Through progressive challenges, the purpose of DP is to move the expert away from automation. Thus, the term â€Å"expert† can be split into two types; the routine expert and the adaptive expert (Alderson, 2010). The routine expert is one that has developed high levels of proficiency in a task by sheer volume of repetitive experience, which has subsequently lead to automation of the task. With a limitation to the cognitive process during automation, routine experts will try to adapt a problem to their existing solution, and as such Mylopoulos and Regehr (2007c) use the term â€Å"experienced non-expert† to describe these individuals. This is supported by Gawande (2002 as cited by Alderson, 2010) who argues that anyone can therefore become a routine â€Å"expert† within a narrow range if the environment of the task remains stable. The craft of glass blowing is an example of routine expertise. Here the blower has physical mastery of the materials and tools required to successfully blow glass, and as such it has become an automated process. Atkinson (2013) describes that within glass blowing there is little or no room for alternate approaches or novelty. Tried and tested methods ar e the shared culture of the craft and within this community of practice, the same technique and materials are used worldwide. Pedagogy in glass blowing is not learner-centred, but revolves around the technique, tools and materials, and whilst there is the stability within the craft, there is also a limited routine range. In contrast, expertise in the surgical field requires a greater flexibility due to the highly individualised characteristics of each patient, and greater innovation is required to deal with the regular challenges (Atkinson, 2013). Thus the surgeon must develop adaptive expertise to broaden their knowledgebase rather than just applying it. Adaptive experts seek and utilise new problems and challenges to encourage DP so as to extend their knowledge and boost performance (Alderson, 2010). They treat learning as a continuous ongoing process, developing flexible and creative methods of solving problems, rather than speed and automaticity. In essence, adaptive experts don’t try to do tasks more efficiently, they try to do it better (Mylopoulos and Regehr, 2007c). Subsequently, the adaptive expert continually seeks to move centripetally within the model of legitimate peripheral participation; they are not happy in the periphery unlike their routine expert counterparts (Mylopoulos et al, 2009). Through their flexibility and understanding of their accumulated knowledge, adaptive experts are better able to apply their past knowledge to deal with new problems (Mylopoulos and Regehr, 2007b). Kneebone and Woods (2014) demonstrate this by simulating an operation using a retired surgical team. Here it is evident that within t he right simulated context of the operating theatre and the familiarity of the same team, the adaptive expertise of the surgeon can be utilised many years later to perform the surgery. It can be argued that other non-medical experts such as musicians are also able to do this if asked to play a piece of music many years later. From personal experience as a musician, I would counter-argue that in this situation routine expertise is used as they would just be repeating a piece of music from memory, whilst the surgeon would be utilising their knowledge and applying it to operate on a new case with all of its various anatomical and physiological permutations (adaptive expertise). Wulf et al (2010) suggests that one should push away the automaticity and non-cognitive practice associated with the routine expert, and instead aim for adaptive expertise. Although Alderson (2010) supports this statement, he points out that in surgery the processes of adaptive expertise such as DP, seeking challenges and innovation need to be monitored to prevent harm to the patient that may arise from the overenthusiastic surgeon forever seeking new knowledge and thus persistently â€Å"at the bottom of the procedural learning curve†. On the contrary, Guest et al (2001) argues routine and adaptive expertise are not separate entities, but rather two ends of a continuous spectrum. They argue that while adaptive expertise should predominate in surgery, by automating basic technical skills, this will help to free-up time for the cognitive processes needed to deal with and learn from the more important and complex situation. The true expert has therefore developed resources and p rocesses that allow effective and efficient solutions for the routine problems of practice (e.g. pattern recognition aided by illness scripts and encapsulated concepts), thus allowing a reinvestment of the cognitive area liberated through the automation process towards innovation and extending new knowledge (Mylopoulos and Regehr, 2007c).

The Nature of Child Development Essay -- Human Development

Human development has been a subject of interest since ancient Greece and Rome. Different approaches derive from two basic directions: the nativists` and empiricists` ones. The latter method is to regard human development as a gradual change which has been influenced by the individual`s experience .On the other hand, the former approach has found its roots in the biological structure of the human organism which considers our development as a series of stages. However, referring to human development only as continuous or gradual would produce inconsistent and insufficient understanding of the developmental process .As a result, combining ideas of both viewpoints(continuity and phases) will provide a more explicit of understanding of the developmental processes and their final aim which is to create individual`s integrity within the social norms. Jean Piaget(1929), widely known as one of the pioneers in investigating child development, has developed his theory on the basis of cognitive stages. He presents four aspects of the child `s concept formation: sensorimotor ,preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. All of these stages suggest the emergence of development precedes the ability to learn. Moreover, It is emphasised on the intellectual development regardless of the cultural influences and specific individual differences. Therefore, human cognitive development is regarded as universal for all human species. On the one hand, Piaget sees the human internal conception in interaction with external world messages conveyed. On the other hand, a child`s ability to perceive cognitive information in an effective way is not clearly defined. Resulting from this, old experiences receive new names. According to Piaget th... ...Tavistok Publishers. Vygotsky L.S. (1978), Tool and Symbol in child development(p.19-31),Problems of method(p.58-79),Interaction between learning and development(p.79-92).In Mind in society :the developmental of higher psychological processes. Harvard university Press , Cambridge, Massachusetts, London Sandstrom C.I.(1966).The psychology of childhood and adolescence. Methuen and Co Ltd, London Erikson E. H. (1965) Eight ages of man(p.239-261),The theory of infantile sexuality(p.43-91) In Childhood and society: Piaget J.(1929) Problems and Methods(p.1-33),The notion of thought(p.33-61),The concept of `Life`(p.194-206),The origin of the sun and moon(p.256-270)In Child`s conceptions of the world. Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd, London Jerome S. B. , Goodnow J. J. and Austin G.A. (1967) Overview ( p.231-247):In A study of thinking . John Wiley and Sons Ltd, USA

Teen Suicide Paper

Teen Suicide Teen suicide has been a continually growing problem over the years. Each year thousands of teens are attempting or completing suicide. Suicide is the third-leading cause of death for 15-24 year-olds, according to The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). It is also the sixth leading cause of death for ages 5-14. The risk of suicides increase tremendously when there’s access to firearms at home. Nearly 60% of all suicides in the U. S. are committed with a gun. That is one of the reasons why they say you should keep them unloaded, locked and kept in a safe place away from children.Another increase in suicides is overdosing on over-the-counter drugs and prescriptions, and non-prescription drugs because it’s very easy for teens to have access to these. Suicide rates differ between boys and girls. Girls think about it twice as often as boys and tend to attempt suicide by overdosing or cutting themselves. Yet boys die by suicide about four times more than girls only because they use guns, hang themselves or jump from heights. When you’re a teen there are many possibilities but also a lot of stress and worry.There is pressure to fit in, perform academically and to just be a responsible teen. Which cause many teens to break and want to give up and end their life. Teens with mental disorders such as anxiety, bipolar disorder or insomnia are at a higher risk of suicidal thoughts. As well as teens with major life changes such as parents divorcing, moving, financial changes, or just conflict with a parent and those who are victims of bullying are at a even greater risk of suicidal thoughts. Bullying can cause someone to have suicidal thoughts, attempt or commit suicide.That’s why you should think about what is going on in someone elses life before you pick on them because that one comment from you could cause them to end their life. Some warning signs to know if a teen is thinking about suicide might be them giving hints that they might not want to be around anymore, pulling away from family and friends, losing interest in school or sports, grades dropping, and changes in eating and sleeping habits. These are all possible signs that they may be struggling and thinking about suicide.One thing you should NOT do is think that they’re just saying they want to kill themselves â€Å"for attention†. That will make them not want to confide to you or anyone, and could lead them to actually attempt suicide. If you’re a parent and feel you can’t handle it contact your doctor and have them refer you to psychiatrist. If you’re a friend be there for that person and show them that you care and want them here and then ask them to call their doctor and get help or call (888) SUICIDE. I hope that this speech taught you about teen suicide, the risks and warning signs and how to help someone having these thoughts.

Email vs. Snail Mail

Throughout history people have communicated with each other in various ways. For instance, some used birds to transfer their messages while others used the smoke of fire to signal their friend who were far from them. Lately postal mail was used as a mean for correspondence, which was referred to as snail mail afterword. And with the invention of telegraph and development of civilization a new tool came in known as e-mail. There are significant discrepancies between snail mail and e-mail along with some common points.First of all, both tools are uses for communication in society, and they are both under risk in terms of confidentiality, but for different reasons. For instance, you cannot be secure that all post offices are safe enough to send your messages that are too personal or contain secret information about your work†¦ etc. E-mails suffer from the same problem but for different reasons. For example your computer can become a victim of hacking and a hacker can get your whole archive in a few seconds. Finally, once they are delivered to the wanted place there is no way going back.Although they share some common points, snail mail and e-mail are tremendously different in many ways. Firstly, e-mail is way a lot faster than snail mail, it enables you to delivers your message in the blink of an eye, whereas it might take days for a snail mail to receive the place you want. Secondly, for sending an e-mail all you need is an internet connection and you can send it to hundreds of people at once, nonetheless, you can send a snail mail once at a time and you have to pay for it respectively.Moreover, there are many options for editing an e-mail and sending different types of media files along with it, in contrast to snail mail with which you can only send text messages. In addition, nowadays people are very busy to memorize the address of all of their acquaintance, e-mail solves this too, you can save all of those confusing addresses in your account without any e ffort, for snail mail this option is not present.The last and most important difference is that using snail mail we actually use up our natural resources like paper and ink, yet e-mail is a tool the encourages sustainability because you neither use resources nor throw it away after using it. As a conclusion, we can say that although both e-mail and snail are similar to each other to some extent it’s clear that all ways lead to using e-mail and regarding snail mail as an obsolete way for communication.